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Propagation loss

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Spreading
Scattering
Reflection
Surface loss
Absorption

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Irregularities in the sea causing scattering.
Sound energy being converted into other forms of energy due to its movement through the water.
The regular weakening of sound as it spreads outwards from the transmitting source.
Suspended particles and marine life deflect sound from its natural path. Can also occur from rough sea bed or high sea states.
Bouncing from sea states, similar to scattering. Happens in lower sea states.

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Average depths

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Ocean
Sea depth
Trench

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1200m
11km
4000m

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Oceanic fronts

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Temperature dominated
Salinity dominated

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formed by warm water overlying colder water
colder less saline water overlying warmer but more saline (thus more dense) water, usually from fjords or glaciers

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Average salinity

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35%, ranging from 32 to 37%

35%, ranging from 33% to 37%

34.5%, ranging from 32 to 37%

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Eddies

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Cold eddies
Warm eddies

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are a core of warm water in a ring of colder water.
a core of cold water within a ring of warm water.

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Sea temperature ranges

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-1.8'C to 30'C

1.3'C to over 30'C

-1.8'C to over 30'C

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Internal waves

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1
2
3
4

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Occur at or near the main thermocline and near fronts.
Wavelengths of 10m to 100km, heights up to 100m.
Occur between sub-surface water layers of differing density.
Can also be caused by topographical features.

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Density is determined by temperature, salinity and depth.

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True

False

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Indicators of an ocean front

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Relatively high horizontal
A change in colour
Lines of debris
An abundance of marine life
A change of cloud
A difference in sea state

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of the surface water
on the warm side of the front
across the front
temperature gradients
type across the front
along the front

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Speed of sound

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3.6m/sec
1.7m/sec
1.4m/sec

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per 100m increase in depth
per 1% increase in salinity
per 1'C increase in temperature

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Major Atlantic currents

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Labrador
East
North
Gulf
North Equatorial
Equatorial
Canary

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Current
Countercurrent
Current
Atlantic current
Greenland current
Stream
Current

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What is a halocline

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a well defined gradient of salinity

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Thermoclines

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The main thermocline
The seasonal thermocline
The transient thermocline

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Seasonal changes but are confined to the near surface layers, such as within the main wind mixed layer. Most evident in middle latitudes.
Below the mixed surface layer and varies in depth with latitude
Small temporary discontinuties seen above the seasonal thermocline in the mixed layer. Caused by diurnal heating and wind mixing.

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The main ocean basins are:

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Atlantic, Pacific, Indian

North Atlantic, Pacific, Indian

Indian, Pacific, North Atlantic

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Ocean fronts

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Denmark
Central
East
Norwegian
Norwegian
Barents

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Strait
Atlantic
Iceland
Sea
Sea
Coast Salinity

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