In Western societies, early pubertal maturation in girls is associated with wide-ranging negative outcomes: Higher incidences of breast and reproductive cancers, Higher rates of teenage pregnancy, miscarriage and stillbirth, Higher rates of babies with low birth weight, Higher reported levels of depression and anxiety, Higher levels of aggression and substance abuse

Individual differences in pubertal maturation are influenced by both genetic and environmental factors. Behavioural genetics studies using twin designs suggest genetic effects account for 50–80% of the variance in menarcheal timing (e.g., Kaprio et al., 1995; Rowe, 2000).

Organisms cannot simultaneously maximise their three major body functions; maintenance, growth and reproduction. Trade-offs to prioritise certain functions at certain times are there necessary. Parental investment denotes the trade-off between nurturing offspring to the detriment of other functions. Belsky, Ellis and colleagues (e.g., 1991, 2004, 2012) applied this approach to human development, proposing psychosocial acceleration theory