Current is conducted through a fluid medium to affect the tissue.

Current is delivered to the tip of the instrument, causing it to heat and affect the tissue.

Current is delivered to the tissue directly, causing it to heat.

Electrons are excited, creating increased light energy, which directly affects the tissue.

Current is conducted through a fluid medium to affect the tissue.

Current is delivered to the tissue directly, causing it to heat.

Current is delivered to the tip of the instrument, causing it to heat and affect the tissue.

Electrons are excited, creating increased light energy, which directly affects the tissue.

continuous.

variable in both intermittency and voltage.

interrupted, but mainly off.

continuous, but oscillates between high and low voltage.

interrupted, but mainly on.

should be used in direct contact with the tissue's surface.

should be used in a dry environment.

uses a column of argon gas that passes over an electrode.

works by igniting a column of argon gas.

uses an argon laser to diffusely coagulate tissues.

monopolar can be used at much higher voltages.

bipolar does not require a dispersive electrode.

bipolar can be used at much higher voltages.

monopolar does not require a dispersive electrode.

there are no differences.

function more reliably in wet environments.

seal vessels faster, and with higher burst pressures.

are cheaper and reusable.

are able to produce less smoke and keep a clear visual field.

show no benefits and are inferior products.

1318 nm.

2140 nm.

1064 nm.

488 nm—blue; 514 nm—green.

2640 nm.

ultrasonic thermal ablation of the stone surface.

pneumatic activity of the laser tip against the stone.

fluid jets created by rapid heating of the surrounding fluid.

direct energy absorption.

cavitation bubble collapse and resulting shock waves.

poor visualization.

ureteral injury.

stone retropulsion.

all of the above.

cost.

All modalities

Electrohydraulic lithotripsy (EHL), pneumatic, ultrasonic

Combination (pneumatic and ultrasound), laser, EHL

Laser, ultrasonic, combination (pneumatic and ultrasonic)

Ultrasonic, laser, EHL